- List of 31 Damage Indicators
- Small Barns or Farm Outbuildings (SBO)
- One- or Two- Family Residences: 100-500m2 (FR12)
- Manufactured Homes: Singe Wide (MHSW)
- Manufactured Homes: Double Wide (MHDW)
- Apartments, Condominiums and Townhouses: 3 Storeys or less (ACT)
- Motels (M)
- Masonry Apartments or Motels (MAM)
- Small Retail Buildings (SRB)
- Small Professional Buildings: Single Storey, less than 500 m2 (SPB)
- Strip Malls (SM)
- Large Shopping Malls (LSM)
- Large Isolated Retail Buildings (LIRB)
- Automobile Showrooms (ASR)
- Automobile Service Buildings (ASB)
- Elementary Schools (ES)
- Junior and Senior High Schools (JHSH)
- Low-Rise Buildings: 1-4 Storeys (LRB)
- Mid-Rise Buildings: 5-20 Storeys (MRB)
- High-Rise Buildings: Greater than 20 Storeys (HRB)
- Institutional Buildings (IB)
- Metal Building Systems (MBS)
- Service Station Canopies (SSC)
- Warehouse Buildings (WHB)
- Free-Standing Towers (FST)
- Free-Standing Light Poles, Luminary Poles, Flag Poles (FSP)
- C-1 Electrical Transmission Lines (C-ETL)
- C-2 Trees (C-T)
- C-3 Heritage Churches (C-HC)
- C-4 Solid Masonry Houses (C-SMH)
- C-5 Farm Silos or Grain Bins (C-FSGB)
- C-6 Sheds, Fences or Lawn Furniture (C-SFLF)
- Glossary
- EF-Scale Canada
- Acknowledgments
Enhanced Fujita Scale Damage Indicators and Degrees of Damage
List of 31 Damage Indicators
List of 31 Damage Indicators (Canadian DIs prefaced with ‘C’)
Small Barns or Farm Outbuildings (SBO)
Typical Construction:
- Less than 250 square metres (m2)
- Wood or metal post and beam construction
- Wood or metal roof trusses
- Wood or metal panel siding
- Metal or wood roof
- Large doors
DOD | Damage Description | EXP* | LB* | UB* |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Threshold of visible damage | 105 | 85 | 129 |
2 | Loss of wood or metal roof panels | 119 | 98 | 146 |
3 | Collapse of doors | 134 | 109 | 164 |
4 | Major loss of roof panels | 145 | 126 | 177 |
5 | Uplift or collapse of roof structure | 150 | 124 | 177 |
6 | Collapse of walls | 156 | 130 | 192 |
7 | Overturning or sliding of entire structure | 159 | 134 | 190 |
8 | Total destruction of building | 180 | 151 | 211 |
*All wind speeds in km/h
One- or Two- Family Residences: 100-500m2 (FR12)
Typical Construction:
- Asphalt shingles, tile, slate or metal roof covering
- Flat, gable, hip, mansard or mono-sloped roof or combinations thereof
- Plywood/Oriented Strand Board (OSB) or wood plank roof deck
- Prefabricated wood trusses or wood joist and rafter construction
- Brick veneer, wood panels, stucco, Exterior Insulation and Finish Systems (EIFS) vinyl or metal siding
- Wood or metal stud walls, concrete
Notes:
- With hip roof, use upper bound wind speed for degree of damage 4 and degree of damage 6
DOD | Damage Description | EXP | LB | UB |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Threshold of visible damage | 105 | 85 | 129 |
2 | Loss of roof covering material (less than 20%), gutters and/or awning; loss of vinyl or metal siding | 127 | 101 | 156 |
3 | Broken glass in doors and windows | 154 | 127 | 183 |
4 | Uplift of roof deck and loss of significant roof covering material (20% or more); collapse of chimney; garage doors collapse inward; failure of porch or carport | 156 | 130 | 187 |
5 | Entire house shifts off foundation | 195 | 166 | 227 |
6 | Large sections of roof structure removed; most walls remain standing | 196 | 167 | 229 |
7 | Exterior walls collapsed | 212 | 182 | 246 |
8 | Most walls collapsed, except small interior rooms | 245 | 204 | 286 |
9 | All walls collapsed | 274 | 229 | 319 |
10 | Destruction of engineered and/or well-constructed residence; slab swept clean | 322 | 266 | 354 |
*All wind speeds in km/h
Manufactured Homes: Singe Wide (MHSW)
Typical Construction:
- Steel undercarriage supported on concrete block piers
- Metal straps and ground anchors (frame and/or over-the-top strap anchors)
- Asphalt shingles or one-piece metal roof covering
- Wood roof joists; metal, vinyl or wood siding
- Wood stud walls and partitions
DOD | Damage Description | EXP | LB | UB |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Threshold of visible damage | 98 | 82 | 122 |
2 | Loss of shingles or partial uplift of one-piece metal roof covering | 119 | 98 | 148 |
3 | Unit slides off block piers but remains upright | 140 | 116 | 166 |
4 | Complete uplift of roof; most walls remain standing | 143 | 117 | 180 |
5 | Unit rolls on its side or upside down; remains essentially intact | 158 | 135 | 183 |
6 | Destruction of roof and walls leaving floor and undercarriage in place | 169 | 140 | 198 |
7 | Unit rolls or vaults; roof and walls separate from floor and undercarriage | 175 | 154 | 206 |
8 | Undercarriage separates from unit; rolls, tumbles and is badly bent | 190 | 163 | 219 |
9 | Complete destruction of unit; debris blown away | 204 | 177 | 238 |
*All wind speeds in km/h
Manufactured Homes: Double Wide (MHDW)
Typical Construction:
- Steel undercarriage supported on concrete block piers
- Multi-unit connection at roof, floor and end walls
- Frame straps and ground anchors spaced 3 - 4 metres apart
- Flat, gable or hip roof shape; asphalt shingles or metal roof panels; plywood/OSB roof decking; wood rafter or shallow joist construction; metal, vinyl or wood siding
DOD | Damage Description | EXP | LB | UB |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Threshold of visible damage | 98 | 82 | 122 |
2 | Loss of shingles or other roof covering (less than 20%) | 122 | 100 | 142 |
3 | Damaged porches or carports | 126 | 108 | 154 |
4 | Broken windows | 134 | 109 | 153 |
5 | Uplift of roof deck and loss of significant roof covering material (20% or more) | 142 | 121 | 174 |
6 | Complete uplift of roof; most walls remain standing | 150 | 124 | 177 |
7 | Unit slides off CMU block piers | 151 | 126 | 175 |
8 | Removal of entire roof structure leaving most walls standing | 156 | 129 | 188 |
9 | Complete destruction of roof and walls leaving undercarriage in place | 182 | 150 | 211 |
10 | Unit rolls, displaces or vaults | 183 | 132 | 209 |
11 | Undercarriage separates from floor, rolls and tumbles, badly bent | 204 | 175 | 238 |
12 | Complete destruction of unit; debris blows away | 216 | 192 | 248 |
*All wind speeds in km/h
Apartments, Condominiums and Townhouses: 3 Storeys or less (ACT)
Typical Construction:
- Flat, gable, hip or mansard roof
- Asphalt shingles, tile, metal or BUR roof covering
- Plywood/OSB (Oriented Strand Board) roof decking
- Light-framed wood or metal roof trusses
- Wood, metal or vinyl panels, stucco brick veneer or EIFS wall covering; combinations of wall coverings
- Wood or metal stud walls; wood floor diaphragms
- Sliding patio doors; balconies
Notes:
- With hip roof, use upper bound wind speed for degree of damage 3 and degree of damage 4
DOD | Damage Description | EXP | LB | UB |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Threshold of visible damage | 122 | 101 | 153 |
2 | Loss of roof covering (less than 20%) | 159 | 132 | 195 |
3 | Uplift of roof decking; significant loss of roof covering (20% or more) | 200 | 172 | 235 |
4 | Uplift or collapse of roof structure leaving most walls standing | 222 | 193 | 254 |
5 | Most top story walls collapsed | 254 | 222 | 296 |
6 | Almost total destruction of top two stories | 290 | 249 | 330 |
*All wind speeds in km/h
Motels (M)
Typical Construction:
- Less than or equal to four storeys
- Facility made up of one or more multi-storey, rectangular buildings
- Flat, gable, hip or mansard roof
- Asphalt shingles, tile, slate or built up roof (BUR) roof covering
- Plywood/OSB roof decking, wood or metal prefabricated roof trusses
- Wood floor diaphragms, wood or metal stud walls
- Stucco, EIFS, wood, metal or brick veneer wall cladding
- Canopy over driveway at entrance; exterior walkways or balconies
Notes:
- With hip roof, use upper bound wind speed for degree of damage 4 and degree of damage 6
DOD | Damage Description | EXP | LB | UB |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Threshold of visible damage | 106 | 87 | 134 |
2 | Loss of roof covering (less than 20%) | 129 | 108 | 159 |
3 | Broken windows or patio doors | 143 | 119 | 172 |
4 | Uplift of roof decking; significant loss of roof covering (20% or more); loss of EIFS wall cladding | 153 | 129 | 187 |
5 | Uplift or collapse of canopy over driveway | 159 | 130 | 190 |
6 | Uplift or collapse of roof structure leaving most walls standing | 198 | 166 | 230 |
7 | Collapse of top story exterior walls | 222 | 195 | 251 |
8 | Collapse of most top story walls | 230 | 204 | 261 |
9 | Collapse of top two floors of three or more stories | 274 | 232 | 298 |
10 | Total destruction of entire building | 306 | 262 | 349 |
*All wind speeds in km/h
Masonry Apartments or Motels (MAM)
Typical Construction:
- Less than or equal to four storeys
- Facility made up or one or more multi-storey, rectangular buildings
- Flat, gable, hip or mansard roof
- Asphalt shingles, tile, slate or BUR roof
- Light steel roof framing with metal deck and lightweight insulation
- Pre-cast or hollow-core concrete roof and floor system
- Concrete Masonry Units (CMU) non-bearing walls
- CMU load-bearing walls
- Stucco, EIFS, or brick veneer wall cladding
- Exterior walkways or balconies
DOD | Damage Description | EXP | LB | UB |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Threshold of visible damage | 105 | 87 | 130 |
2 | Loss of roof covering (less than 20%) | 129 | 108 | 163 |
3 | Uplift of lightweight metal roof decking | 153 | 130 | 187 |
4 | Uplift of concrete roof decking | 195 | 166 | 230 |
5 | Collapse of top storey walls | 214 | 185 | 241 |
6 | Collapse of top two floors of three or more storeys | 251 | 212 | 290 |
7 | Total destruction of a large section of building | 290 | 257 | 330 |
*All wind speeds in km/h
Small Retail Buildings (SRB)
Typical Construction:
- Best example is fast-food restaurant
- Flat, hip, gable, mansard or mono-slope roof
- Asphalt shingles, metal panels, slate, tile, single-ply or BUR roof covering
- Plywood/OSB roof decking
- Wood or metal roof structure consisting of trusses or rafters and joists
- Wood or metal stud walls
- Typically have large areas of window glass and double entry doors
- Canopies, covered walkways or porches
- Wood, brick veneer, metal or vinyl siding, concrete blocks, EIFS or stucco wall cladding
Notes:
- With hip roof, use upper bound wind speed for degree of damage 4 and degree of damage 6
DOD | Damage Description | EXP* | LB* | UB* |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Threshold of visible damage | 105 | 87 | 130 |
2 | Loss of roof covering (less than 20%) | 126 | 105 | 158 |
3 | Broken glass in windows and doors | 138 | 116 | 166 |
4 | Uplift of roof decking; significant loss of roof covering (20% or more) | 158 | 130 | 192 |
5 | Canopies or covered walkways destroyed | 158 | 134 | 183 |
6 | Uplift or collapse of entire roof structure | 192 | 163 | 225 |
7 | Collapse of exterior walls; closely spaced interior walls remain standing | 222 | 193 | 256 |
8 | Total destruction of entire building | 269 | 230 | 311 |
*All wind speeds in km/h
Small Professional Buildings: Single Storey, less than 500 m2 (SPB)
Typical Construction:
- Flat, gable, hip, mansard or mono-slope roofs with or without parapet walls
- Asphalt shingles, tile, slate, metal panels, single-ply or built-up roof covering
- Light-frame steel construction, steel joists and formed metal decking
- Load-bearing masonry construction with steel or wood roof structure
- Timber post and beam construction
- Wood or metal stud walls, non-bearing masonry walls
- Metal or vinyl panels, stucco or EIFS cladding
- Skylights and/or clearstories
Notes:
- With hip roof, use upper bound wind speed for degree of damage 5 and degree of damage 7
DOD | Damage Description | EXP* | LB* | UB* |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Threshold of visible damage | 105 | 87 | 130 |
2 | Loss of roof covering (less than 20%) | 126 | 105 | 158 |
3 | Broken windows, including clear story windows or skylights | 143 | 119 | 172 |
4 | Exterior doors fail | 161 | 132 | 190 |
5 | Uplift of roof decking; significant loss of roof covering (20% or more); loss of rooftop HVAC equipment | 161 | 135 | 188 |
6 | Collapsed façade or parapet walls | 166 | 137 | 198 |
7 | Uplift or collapse of entire roof structure | 200 | 169 | 233 |
8 | Collapse of exterior walls; closely spaced interior walls remain standing | 232 | 198 | 266 |
9 | Total destruction of entire building | 253 | 238 | 322 |
*All wind speeds in km/h
Strip Malls (SM)
Typical Construction:
- Large, rectangular single-storey building with large surrounding parking lots
- Flat roof with parapet wall
- Built-up roofing or single-ply roof membrane with rigid insulation
- Wood or metal deck, wood-fiber cement panels
- Light-frame steel roof support with steel joists or joist girders
- Brick or concrete block wall construction
- Large window glass and glass entry doors
- Covered walkway attached to building
DOD | Damage Description | EXP* | LB* | UB* |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Threshold of visible damage | 105 | 87 | 130 |
2 | Uplift of roof covering at eaves and roof corners | 129 | 106 | 161 |
3 | Broken windows or glass doors | 142 | 116 | 169 |
4 | Uplift of roof decking | 163 | 135 | 196 |
5 | Collapsed façade or parapet walls | 166 | 137 | 201 |
6 | Covered walkways uplifted or collapsed | 166 | 138 | 201 |
7 | Uplift or collapse of entire roof structure | 196 | 166 | 230 |
8 | Collapse of exterior walls; closely spaced interior walls remain standing | 225 | 188 | 266 |
9 | Complete destruction of all or a large section of building | 275 | 237 | 319 |
*All wind speeds in km/h
Large Shopping Malls (LSM)
Typical Construction:
- Typically one or two storeys
- Flat roof; some areas with relatively large spans
- Skylights and clear stories
- Single-ply or BUR with or without roof gravel
- Metal stud walls with brick veneer, stucco or EIFS cladding
- Light steel structural framing with open web joists, light metal framing or 3-D space framing
- Glass at entries
DOD | Damage Description | EXP* | LB* | UB* |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Threshold of visible damage. | 114 | 95 | 138 |
2 | Loss of roof covering (less than 20%) | 137 | 111 | 169 |
3 | Broken skylights, clearstory windows and atrium walls broken | 148 | 121 | 183 |
4 | Uplift of some roof decking; significant loss of roofing material (20% or more); loss of rooftop HVAC | 174 | 148 | 206 |
5 | Wall cladding stripped starting at corners and progressing to other areas | 179 | 151 | 211 |
6 | Roof structure uplifted or collapsed | 206 | 174 | 241 |
7 | Exterior walls in top storey collapsed | 232 | 200 | 267 |
8 | Interior walls of top storey collapse | 257 | 224 | 298 |
9 | Complete destruction of all or a large section of the building | 328 | 283 | 398 |
*All wind speeds in km/h.
Large Isolated Retail Buildings (LIRB)
Typical Construction:
- Flat roof with BUR and gravel or single-ply membrane roof; generally has a 1m parapet
- Open web joists and steel girders or joist girders supported by tall pipe columns
- Metal deck with rigid insulation or lightweight concrete fill slab
- Large windows on front side of building
- CMU walls, tilt-up concrete panels, metal stud walls covered with EIFS or combinations of these
DOD | Damage Description | EXP* | LB* | UB* |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Threshold of visible damage | 109 | 92 | 134 |
2 | Loss of roof covering (less than 20%) | 130 | 109 | 166 |
3 | Uplift of some roof decking; significant loss of roofing material (20% or more); loss of rooftop HVAC | 166 | 140 | 198 |
4 | Long roof spans collapsed downward | 196 | 166 | 232 |
5 | Uplift and removal of roof structure | 216 | 183 | 253 |
6 | Inward or outward collapse of exterior walls | 220 | 190 | 254 |
7 | Complete destruction of all or a large section of the building | 278 | 237 | 323 |
*All wind speeds in km/h
Automobile Showrooms (ASR)
Typical Construction:
- Most showrooms are single-storey buildings with flat roof
- Roof system is BUR or single-ply membrane
- Metal roof deck or plywood panels
- Steel structural framing with open web steel joists
- Metal stud walls with EIFS, stucco or tilt-up panels
- Exterior walls on 2 or 3 sides have large glass windows
DOD | Damage Description | EXP* | LB* | UB* |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Threshold of visible damage | 105 | 76 | 129 |
2 | Loss of roof covering (less than 20%) | 129 | 108 | 163 |
3 | Broken glass in windows or doors | 140 | 114 | 171 |
4 | Uplift of some roof decking; significant loss of roofing material (20% or more); loss of rooftop HVAC | 163 | 134 | 193 |
5 | Cladding stripped off walls | 180 | 151 | 212 |
6 | Uplift or collapse of roof structure | 190 | 158 | 225 |
7 | Exterior walls collapsed | 203 | 171 | 238 |
8 | Complete destruction of all or a large section of the building | 253 | 222 | 291 |
*All wind speeds in km/h
Automobile Service Buildings (ASB)
Typical Construction:
- Single storey building with flat roof and relatively tall walls with parapet
- Roof coverings are typically BUR with gravel or single-ply membrane
- Roof structure is light steel framing or open web steel joists and metal roof deck
- Exterior walls are concrete masonry or pre-cast tilt-up panels
- Numerous large metal overhead doors
DOD | Damage Description | EXP* | LB* | UB* |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Threshold of visible damage | 101 | 74 | 127 |
2 | Loss of roof covering (less than 20%) | 126 | 105 | 159 |
3 | Failure of large overhead doors | 146 | 124 | 177 |
4 | Uplift of some roof decking; significant loss of roofing material (20% or more); loss of rooftop HVAC | 158 | 129 | 192 |
5 | Collapse of non-bearing masonry or tilt-up walls | 183 | 151 | 216 |
6 | Uplift or collapse of roof structure | 195 | 164 | 230 |
7 | Collapse of load-bearing walls | 206 | 171 | 240 |
8 | Complete destruction of all or a large section of the building | 253 | 222 | 291 |
*All wind speeds in km/h
Elementary Schools (ES)
Typical Construction:
- These buildings are typically single storey with flat roofs; CMU bearing walls with brick veneer, stucco or EIFS cladding; walls can have a large percentage of window glass
- Building may contain a small gym or cafeteria with moderately long spans between supports
- Buildings have long interior hallways with bearing or non-bearing walls
- BUR, single-ply membrane or metal standing seam roof panels; metal or plywood roof decking supporting rigid insulation boards or a lightweight poured gypsum deck
- Roof structure consists of open web steel joists bearing on exterior walls and steel interior girders; exterior non-bearing walls constructed with CMUs, glass curtain walls or metal studs with brick veneer, stucco or EIFS cladding
DOD | Damage Description | EXP* | LB* | UB* |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Threshold of visible damage | 105 | 76 | 129 |
2 | Loss of roof covering (less than 20%) | 127 | 106 | 159 |
3 | Broken windows | 140 | 114 | 171 |
4 | Exterior door failures | 159 | 137 | 190 |
5 | Uplift of some roof decking; significant loss of roofing material (20% or more); loss of rooftop HVAC | 163 | 132 | 195 |
6 | Damage to or loss of wall cladding | 174 | 148 | 204 |
7 | Uplift or collapse of roof structure | 201 | 174 | 238 |
8 | Collapse of non-bearing walls | 224 | 188 | 261 |
9 | Collapse of load-bearing walls | 246 | 209 | 290 |
10 | Total destruction of a large section of or entire building | 283 | 245 | 327 |
*All wind speeds in km/h
Junior and Senior High Schools (JHSH)
Typical Construction:
- Generally large one or two-storey buildings with flat roofs; may contain gymnasiums, cafeteria and auditorium with large structural spans; may have a basement
- Classroom wings have interior hallways with bearing or non-bearing interior walls
- BUR or single-ply membrane roof covering with or without gravel; structural system may consist of an all steel structure or an all reinforced concrete structure or a combination of both
- Roof structure may be light steel construction with open web joists supported on steel beams; corrugated metal roof deck with rigid insulation or poured gypsum deck
- Exterior walls constructed of concrete or clay blocks with brick veneer, stucco or EIFS; metal and glass curtain walls; walls may have more than 30% windows
DOD | Damage Description | EXP* | LB* | UB* |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Threshold of visible damage | 109 | 89 | 134 |
2 | Loss of roof covering (less than 20%) | 127 | 106 | 159 |
3 | Broken windows | 140 | 114 | 171 |
4 | Exterior door failures | 163 | 134 | 195 |
5 | Uplift of metal roof decking; significant loss of roofing material (20% or more); loss of rooftop HVAC | 163 | 137 | 192 |
6 | Damage to or loss of wall cladding | 174 | 148 | 204 |
7 | Collapse of tall masonry walls at gym, cafeteria or auditorium | 183 | 151 | 219 |
8 | Uplift or collapse of light steel roof structure | 201 | 174 | 238 |
9 | Collapse of exterior walls in top floor | 224 | 195 | 246 |
10 | Most interior walls of top floor collapsed | 254 | 214 | 299 |
11 | Complete destruction of all or a large section of building | 309 | 262 | 360 |
*All wind speeds in km/h
Low-Rise Buildings: 1-4 Storeys (LRB)
Typical Construction:
- Generally consist of rectangular modules but can be “odd shaped” in plan
- Most will have flat roofs but can have gable, hip or mansard shapes
- Roofing materials include BUR, single-ply membrane, metal panels or standing seam
- Roof deck is wood or metal deck, poured gypsum deck or concrete slab
- Steel or reinforced concrete structural frame
- Glass and metal curtain walls, metal studs with EIFS, non-bearing masonry walls with stucco or brick veneer
- Examples are office buildings, medical facilities, and bank buildings
Notes:
- With hip roof, use upper bound wind speed for DOD3 and DOD5
DOD | Damage Description | EXP* | LB* | UB* |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Threshold of visible damage | 109 | 89 | 134 |
2 | Loss of roof covering (less than 20%) | 129 | 108 | 166 |
3 | Uplift of metal roof decking at eaves and roof corners: significant loss of roofing material (20% or more) | 163 | 134 | 193 |
4 | Broken glass in windows, entryways or atriums | 163 | 134 | 196 |
5 | Uplift of lightweight roof structure | 214 | 183 | 253 |
6 | Significant damage to exterior walls and some interior walls | 230 | 196 | 269 |
7 | Complete destruction of all or a large section of building | 303 | 259 | 356 |
*All wind speeds in km/h
Mid-Rise Buildings: 5-20 Storeys (MRB)
Typical Construction:
- Generally consist of rectangular shapes but can have curved or triangular footprints
- Roofs are generally flat; may have an elevator/mechanical penthouse; parapet walls
- Structural frame is steel or reinforced concrete
- Roofing materials are BUR or single-ply membrane with or without gravel
- Penthouse is steel framing with metal panels, or metal studs with stucco or EIFS
- Exterior cladding is glass or metal curtain walls; pre-cast concrete window wall panels or a combination of the two
- Roof structure consists of metal deck, poured gypsum deck or concrete slab
- Examples are office buildings, medical facilities, and residential buildings
DOD | Damage Description | EXP* | LB* | UB* |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Threshold of visible damage | 113 | 93 | 138 |
2 | Loss of roof covering (less than 20%) | 134 | 109 | 166 |
3 | Damage to penthouse roof and walls; loss of rooftop HVAC equipment | 148 | 121 | 182 |
4 | Damage to parapet walls or coping | 159 | 134 | 190 |
5 | Broken glass in curtain walls; glass in entryways; significant damage to building interior | 163 | 134 | 193 |
6 | Uplift of lightweight roof decking; significant loss of roofing material (20% or more) | 192 | 158 | 225 |
7 | Broken curtain wall panel anchors | 208 | 177 | 241 |
8 | Uplift or collapse of roof structure | 219 | 190 | 254 |
9 | Significant damage to curtain walls and some interior walls | 233 | 193 | 269 |
10 | Permanent structural deformation | 338 | 291 | 431 |
*All wind speeds in km/h
High-Rise Buildings: Greater than 20 Storeys (HRB)
Typical Construction:
- Generally consist of rectangular shapes but can have curved or triangle footprints
- Roofs are generally flat but may have a more complex roof shape as part of aesthetic statement; roofing material single-ply membrane fully adhered, polyurethane foam roof, metal or copper clad roof covering
- Structural frame is steel or reinforced concrete; penthouse is steel framing with metal panels
- Exterior cladding is glass or metal curtain walls or pre-cast concrete window panels
- First floor often has very large glass areas that are susceptible to debris impact
- Atriums with overhead glazing or tall window walls
- Examples are hotels, office buildings, and condominiums
DOD | Damage Description | EXP* | LB* | UB* |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Threshold of visible damage | 113 | 93 | 138 |
2 | Loss of roof covering (less than 20%) | 138 | 111 | 172 |
3 | Damage to penthouse roof and walls; loss of rooftop HVAC equipment | 150 | 121 | 179 |
4 | Broken glass in exterior walls at 1st and 2nd floors; broken glass in entryways | 163 | 134 | 193 |
5 | Damage to parapet walls or coping | 167 | 140 | 196 |
6 | Broken curtain wall panel anchors | 208 | 177 | 253 |
7 | Significant loss of roofing material (20% or more) | 230 | 185 | 266 |
8 | Significant damage to curtain walls and interior walls | 233 | 198 | 277 |
9 | Uplift or collapse of roof structure | 256 | 198 | 295 |
10 | Permanent structural deformation | 367 | 306 | 467 |
*All wind speeds in km/h
Institutional Buildings (IB)
Typical Construction:
- Examples are hospitals, courthouses, university buildings, state and federal buildings, jails
- Range in height from 1 – 10 storeys; balconies, porches and porticos with heavy façade
- Roofing materials include fully adhered and mechanically fastened single-ply membranes, polyurethane foam, copper-clad domes
- Structure is normally reinforced concrete, relatively small windows
- Walls are masonry with cut stone or pre-cast panels – very ornate
DOD | Damage Description | EXP* | LB* | UB* |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Threshold of visible damage | 116 | 95 | 142 |
2 | Loss of roof covering (less than 20%) | 138 | 116 | 175 |
3 | Damage to penthouse roof and walls; loss of rooftop HVAC equipment | 148 | 121 | 179 |
4 | Broken glass in windows or doors | 153 | 126 | 185 |
5 | Uplift of lightweight roof deck and insulation; significant loss of roofing material (20% or more) | 183 | 153 | 219 |
6 | Façade components torn from structure | 190 | 156 | 225 |
7 | Damage curtain walls or other wall cladding | 211 | 177 | 245 |
8 | Uplift of pre-cast concrete roof slabs | 229 | 192 | 262 |
9 | Uplift of metal deck with concrete fill slab | 235 | 190 | 274 |
10 | Collapse of some top story exterior walls | 238 | 204 | 277 |
11 | Complete destruction of all or a large portion of building | 338 | 286 | 431 |
*All wind speeds in km/h
Metal Building Systems (MBS)
Typical Construction:
- Examples are warehouses, industrial facilities, small arenas
- Metal panel walls and standing seam roof
- Nearly always have a gable roof and relatively tall walls
- Large overhead doors
- Large-span single bay rigid frames
- Z- or C-shaped purlins and girts span between rigid frames
- Lateral loads resisted by cross-bracing
DOD | Damage Description | EXP* | LB* | UB* |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Threshold of visible damage | 108 | 87 | 134 |
2 | Inward or outward collapse of overhead doors | 143 | 121 | 174 |
3 | Metal roof or wall panels pulled from the building | 153 | 126 | 193 |
4 | Column anchorage failed | 188 | 154 | 217 |
5 | Buckling of roof purlins | 190 | 153 | 222 |
6 | Failure of cross-braces in the lateral load resisting system | 222 | 190 | 254 |
7 | Progressive collapse of rigid frames | 230 | 193 | 270 |
8 | Total destruction of building | 249 | 212 | 286 |
*All wind speeds in km/h
Service Station Canopies (SSC)
Typical Construction:
- Modern service stations consist of a very large canopy covering the entire pump area and a small building that houses cashier and retail space
- Canopy structure constructed of steel beam framework supported on 4 or more tall columns
- Metal panels cover bottom side of the canopy
- Light weight fascia materials, either metal or plastic, cover the perimeter of canopy
DOD | Damage Description | EXP* | LB* | UB* |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Threshold of visible damage | 101 | 72 | 127 |
2 | Fascia material blown from canopy | 126 | 103 | 154 |
3 | Metal roof panels stripped from canopy | 148 | 119 | 182 |
4 | Columns bend or buckle under wind load | 175 | 142 | 217 |
5 | Canopy collapsed due to column foundation failure | 183 | 145 | 232 |
6 | Complete destruction of canopy | 214 | 177 | 262 |
*All wind speeds in km/h
Warehouse Buildings (WHB)
Typical Construction:
- This category includes all building systems except Metal Building Systems
- Examples include warehouse, storage and industrial buildings
- Buildings are generally rectangular in plan with flat, gable or hip roofs
- Built-up roofs with gravel, single-ply membrane ballasted, mechanicall attached or fully adhered
- Light-frame steel construction with masonry bearing walls
- Large overhead doors
- Pre-cast concrete columns, beams and double tees with tilt-up wall panels
- Heavy timber construction with stud walls and wood panels
DOD | Damage Description | EXP* | LB* | UB* |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Threshold of visible damage | 109 | 89 | 134 |
2 | Loss of roofing material (less than 20%) | 134 | 111 | 169 |
3 | Inward or outward collapse of overhead doors | 142 | 121 | 172 |
4 | Uplift of roof deck; significant loss of roofing material (20% or more); loss of rooftop HVAC equipment | 166 | 142 | 196 |
5 | Collapse of other non-bearing exterior walls | 183 | 150 | 203 |
6 | Collapse of pre-cast concrete tilt-up panels | 200 | 164 | 232 |
7 | Total destruction of a large section of building or entire building | 254 | 211 | 299 |
*All wind speeds in km/h
Free-Standing Towers (FST)
Typical Construction:
- Cell phone pole or tower
- Microwave tower
DOD | Damage Description | EXP* | LB* | UB* |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Threshold of visible damage | 148 | 122 | 182 |
2 | Collapsed cell-phone pole or tower | 214 | 182 | 253 |
3 | Collapsed micro-wave tower | 219 | 187 | 257 |
*All wind speeds in km/h
Free-Standing Light Poles, Luminary Poles, Flag Poles (FSP)
Typical Construction:
- Cantilevered metal pole
DOD | Damage Description | EXP* | LB* | UB* |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Threshold of visible damage | 130 | 108 | 161 |
2 | Bent pole | 164 | 137 | 193 |
3 | Collapsed pole | 190 | 159 | 222 |
*All wind speeds in km/h
C-1 Electrical Transmission Lines (C-ETL)
Typical Construction:
- Single wood poles with wood cross arms, 7-35 metres (m) in height and 15-60 centimetres (cm) in diameter (at 2 m above ground)
- Single steel or concrete poles with metal cross arms
- Metal trussed towers
Notes:
- Whether poles go down is related to size, composition (wood / concrete / steel) and load (wire tension, number of transformers)
- For small diameter (~15-20 cm) or very old wood poles, use lower bound; for large diameter (~45-60 cm) wood poles, use upper bound
- Keep in mind – one weak or overloaded pole going down can cause other poles along the line to break due to wire tension
- Trees falling on lines can bring down poles – do not use this DI if this is the case
- Metal trussed towers where lines change direction are often more strongly reinforced, use upper bound
DOD | Damage Description | EXP* | LB* | UB* |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Threshold of visible damage | 130 | 110 | 155 |
2 | Broken wood cross member | 155 | 125 | 175 |
3 | Wood poles leaning | 175 | 135 | 200 |
4 | Broken wood poles | 195 | 145 | 220 |
5 | Broken or bent steel or concrete poles | 210 | 180 | 240 |
6 | Collapsed metal truss towers | 220 | 185 | 255 |
*All wind speeds in km/h
C-2 Trees (C-T)
Typical Species:
- Hardwood: Oak, Maple, Birch, Ash, Beech, Cherry, Hickory, Walnut, Aspen, Elm, Poplar
- Softwood: Pine, Spruce, Fir, Hemlock, Cedar, Larch, Redwood, Cypress
Notes:
- General differences in the responses of softwood and hardwood species are less important than other factors
- Use lower bound wind speed if trees show evidence of significant rot, or if uprooting occurs with saturated ground or very shallow soil
- In urban and suburban areas, trees broken at the base of the trunk were likely planted too deeply, had mechanical injury, or had girdling roots – use lower-bound wind speed
- Forests and woodlots composed of even-aged monoculture plantations can be assigned a lower-bound wind speed; forests or woodlots composed of mature, deep-rooted red oak, red maple, beech, hemlock or white cedar can be assigned a upper-bound wind speed
DOD | Damage Description | EXP* | LB* | UB* |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Small limbs broken (less than 2 cm diameter) | 70 | 55 | 85 |
2 | Large branches broken (2 - 8 cm diameter) | 90 | 65 | 110 |
3 | Intermittent mature trees snapped and/or uprooted | 125 | 80 | 160 |
4 | Numerous mature trees snapped and/or uprooted | 155 | 100 | 190 |
5 | Most mature trees snapped and/or uprooted | 180 | 120 | 220 |
6 | Virtually all mature trees snapped and/or uprooted, trees may be denuded/debarked by missiles with only stubs of largest branches remaining | 230 | 180 | 275 |
*All wind speeds in km/h
C-3 Heritage Churches (C-HC)
Typical Construction:
- Built with bricks and/or stones
- Solidly built roof structure
- May also have one or more bell towers
DOD | Damage Description | EXP* | LB* | UB* |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Threshold of visible damage | 80 | 60 | 100 |
2 | Loss of roof covering material (less than 20%) | 110 | 85 | 135 |
3 | Loss of significant roof covering material (20 - 45%); light damage on the bell-tower summit | 145 | 115 | 175 |
4 | Large sections of roof structure removed (50 - 75%); collapse of the bell-tower summit (spire); walls remain standing | 185 | 150 | 220 |
5 | Roof structure significantly removed (80% or more) and blown away; walls partly collapsed; bell-tower structure damaged | 225 | 190 | 260 |
6 | Roof structure totally removed; many walls collapsed; bell-tower structure mostly destroyed | 270 | 230 | 310 |
7 | Complete destruction of building | 315 | 275 | 355 |
*All wind speeds in km/h
C-4 Solid Masonry Houses (C-SMH)
Typical Construction:
- Asphalt shingles, tile, slate or metal roof covering
- Flat, gable, hip, mansard or mono-sloped roof or combinations thereof
- Plywood/OSB or wood plank roof deck
- All exterior walls are solid masonry construction (e.g. double brick)
- Roof is wood joist and rafter construction
DOD | Damage Description | EXP* | LB* | UB* |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Threshold of visible damage | 105 | 85 | 129 |
2 | Loss of roof covering material (less than 20%), gutters and/or awning; loss of vinyl or metal siding | 127 | 101 | 156 |
3 | Broken glass in doors and windows | 154 | 127 | 183 |
4 | Uplift of roof deck and loss of significant roof covering material (20% or more); collapse of chimney; garage doors collapse inward; failure of porch or carport | 156 | 130 | 187 |
5 | Large sections of roof structure removed; most walls remain standing | 196 | 167 | 238 |
6 | Exterior walls collapsed | 245 | 210 | 286 |
7 | Most walls collapsed, except small interior rooms | 285 | 247 | 325 |
8 | Complete destruction of building | 315 | 275 | 355 |
*All wind speeds in km/h
C-5 Farm Silos or Grain Bins (C-FSGB)
Typical Construction:
Farm silos
- Cylindrical structures typically 4 - 10 m in diameter and 20 - 50 m in height
- Construction is wood staves, concrete staves, cast concrete, poured concrete or steel panels
Grain bins
- Cylindrical structures typically 5 - 20 m in diameter and 5 - 30 m in height
- Construction is galvanized steel panels and purlins
DOD | Damage Description | EXP* | LB* | UB* |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Empty unanchored grain bin toppled; anchored grain bin damaged; silo cap damaged | 90 | 70 | 110 |
2 | Empty unanchored grain bin rolled or carried through air less than 10 m; anchored grain bin toppled; silo cap removed | 135 | 110 | 160 |
3 | Anchored grain bin rolled or carried less than 10 m; empty portions of stave concrete silos destroyed | 180 | 150 | 210 |
4 | Grain bin carried 10 - 100 m or more; stave concrete silo destroyed | 225 | 190 | 260 |
*All wind speeds in km/h
C-6 Sheds, Fences or Lawn Furniture (C-SFLF)
Typical Construction:
Shed
- Single storey and less than 12 m2
- Wood, metal and/or plastic construction
- Metal, wood, plastic or shingle roof
- May have wood, metal or vinyl siding
- May have one or more windows
- May be unanchored or weakly anchored
Wood fence
- Wood rails, panels and posts (sunk into post holes)
Lawn Furniture
- Light wood, metal and/or plastic construction intended for outdoor use
Notes:
- Use upper bound wind speed for large and/or well-anchored sheds
DOD | Damage Description | EXP* | LB* | UB* |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Garden shed overturned, wood fence blown down, lawn furniture blown around | 90 | 70 | 110 |
2 | Garden shed rolled or carried through the air less than 10 m, lawn furniture carried through air | 135 | 110 | 160 |
3 | Garden shed carried through air 10 m or more | 180 | 150 | 210 |
*All wind speeds in km/h
Glossary
A roof having two sloping sides that come together at a ridge, creating end walls with a triangular extension, called a gable, at the top
A roof that slopes back from all four sides to a single point, or line, at the top
A type of hip roof where each sloping section is divided in two to create maximum space under the roof; the first section near the walls rises steeply while the second section continues at a milder pitch toward the center.
EF-Scale Canada
EF-Scale Rating | EF-Scale Wind Speed Rounded to 5 km/h |
---|---|
0 | 90-130 |
1 | 135-175 |
2 | 180-220 |
3 | 225-265 |
4 | 270-310 |
5 | 315 or more |
Acknowledgments
- Damage indicator information for DI 1-26 from McDonald, J. and K. C. Mehta, 2006: A Recommendation for an Enhanced Fujita Scale (EF-Scale), Revision 2. Wind Science and Engineering Research Center, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX, 111 pp.
- Damage indictor information for DI C-3 (C-HC) was adapted from a ‘Churches’ Damage Indicator developed by Keraunos for France (provided by Dr. Emmanuel Wesolek, see http://www.essl.org/ECSS/2011/programme/presentations/111.pdf)
- Most glossary information from NOAA’s Warning Decision Training Branch (see http://www.wdtb.noaa.gov/)
- Date Modified: